Hidden Camera Laws

The importance and benefits of using hidden cameras for security purposes is well known to all. However, the fact that they are "hidden", thereby not letting people know the fact that they are being watched, makes the application of this technology a controversial issue. Some might even go as far to say that if people knew they were being monitored many crimes like shoplifting wouldn't happen in the first place. Also, the fact that hidden cameras are sometimes used by miscreants to invade other people's privacy doesn't help matters either.

It is perhaps because of these reasons that laws related to hidden cameras aren't very comprehensive and vary from state to state. So if you are planning on installing or using a hidden camera system in your home or workplace, then it would be wise to understand the laws relating to their use in your state so that you don't face any legal problems or charges in the future when and if anyone discovers and/or takes offense to the truth that you were operating a hidden video surveillance system.

Criminal Law

As it stands, the installation or operation of covert cameras is prohibited in only thirteen states of the United States of America. However, even in these thirteen states, the existing laws specifically prohibit the use or installation of surveillance equipment in those places where people reserve the right to expect a reasonable amount of privacy such as locker rooms, bathroom, bedrooms, dressing rooms etc.

Hidden Camera Laws

In fact, in many states, footage of crime captured on tape via hidden camera is admissible in court as evidence! At the same time, it's also true that in several states, prior consent from individuals being filmed isn't even necessary, whereas in quite a few others, consent is obligatory, at least as far as letting people know that they are being watched is concerned.

Thus, from the above, it's obvious that there is a lack of stringent and uniform laws covering the use and installation of hidden cameras. This is why it would be a prudent decision to educate yourself about the specific laws governing your region by consulting your local law enforcement agencies. You can also read up about the laws pertaining to secret surveillance in your area on the internet

And while we are on the topic of the legality of hidden cameras, another thing you should know in this regard is that it is considered illegal to record speech without the consent of all the parties involved in the states of Connecticut, California, Florida, Delaware, Illinois, Hawaii, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Nevada, Montana, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Washington, Oregon and Maryland.

Thus to conclude, safeguard yourself against possible future legal costs by doing your homework well in advance with regard to what you are legally allowed to do with hidden cameras in your state and where you need the draw the line between necessary surveillance and invasion of privacy!

Hidden Camera Laws

Eric Jensen is a former private investigator and hidden spy camera installer. He now works as a consultant for designing spy camera equipment for homes and businesses. Get more information regarding a hidden camera.

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What's The Difference Between A Criminal Matter And A Civil Matter?

This is a good question. It's asked of me more than any other questions.

These are examples of criminal matters:

Criminal Law

Robberies, rapes, murders, all thefts, burglaries, dui's, batteries, sex crimes, etc.

What's The Difference Between A Criminal Matter And A Civil Matter?

These are examples of civil matters:

Repossesion of any properties, garnishments, rental disputes, etc.

The best way to tell if a charge, allegation, or matter is civil or criminal in nature is to research the penalty. In other words, if the penalty can result in jail time, it's a criminal matter. If the penalty is a fine or loss of the subject at hand, that's civil.

Please keep this in mind though, in rare circumstances a civil matter can end up criminally.

An example: You purchase a vehicle, can't pay the car note, and a repossesion order is placed on your vehicle. The 'repo' man comes to take possession. As he begins to take your vehicle you get into a physical struggle with him to prevent it. You hit him! Now you can be charge with battery. Your best defense in this kind of circumstance is to let him have it. You can always purchase another vehicle. It's not worth it to go to jail and STILL lose your vehicle.

The above example can also apply with garnishments, rental disputes or any other matter. The important thing to remember is not to escalate the civil matter into a criminal matter. In most cases you will still lose coupled with jail time. Not worth it!

Take care, drive safe, and obey the laws.

What's The Difference Between A Criminal Matter And A Civil Matter?

This author submits professional articles to http://www.ezinearticles.com His articles informs citizens about how to handle different situations when confronted by the police. He is a former award winning police officer. Mr. Davis is an authorize speaker to young police recruits in Louisiana. He is also a master in wilderness suvival. He studied criminal law at Loyola University in New Orleans, Louisiana. In addition, Mr. Davis has been a featured guest on many television shows detailing how to detect rogue police officers as well as a defense against such officers. This author is also working with Authors Stephen Peach, the award winning ex swat officer of California, and Mike Madigan. These two authors have also dedicated their lives to exposing rogue cops. Mr. Davis will be at Barnes and Noble, CitiPlace Ct., in Baton Rouge, Louisiana at a book signing on April 14, 2007, from 1:00pm - 2:00pm.

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Fire Insurance Under Indian Insurance Law

A contract of Insurance comes into being when a person seeking insurance protection enters into a contract with the insurer to indemnify him against loss of property by or incidental to fire and or lightening, explosion, etc. This is primarily a contract and hence as is governed by the general law of contract. However, it has certain special features as insurance transactions, such as utmost faith, insurable interest, indemnity, subrogation and contribution, etc. these principles are common in all insurance contracts and are governed by special principles of law.

FIRE INSURANCE:

Criminal Law

According to S. 2(6A), "fire insurance business" means the business of effecting, otherwise than incidentally to some other class of insurance business, contracts of insurance against loss by or incidental to fire or other occurrence, customarily included among the risks insured against in fire insurance business.

Fire Insurance Under Indian Insurance Law

According to Halsbury, it is a contract of insurance by which the insurer agrees for consideration to indemnify the assured up to a certain extent and subject to certain terms and conditions against loss or damage by fire, which may happen to the property of the assured during a specific period.
Thus, fire insurance is a contract whereby the person, seeking insurance protection, enters into a contract with the insurer to indemnify him against loss of property by or incidental to fire or lightning, explosion etc. This policy is designed to insure one's property and other items from loss occurring due to complete or partial damage by fire.

In its strict sense, a fire insurance contract is one:

1. Whose principle object is insurance against loss or damage occasioned by fire.

2. The extent of insurer's liability being limited by the sum assured and not necessarily by the extent of loss or damage sustained by the insured: and

3. The insurer having no interest in the safety or destruction of the insured property apart from the liability undertaken under the contract.

LAW GOVERNING FIRE INSURANCE

There is no statutory enactment governing fire insurance, as in the case of marine insurance which is regulated by the Indian Marine Insurance Act, 1963. the Indian Insurance Act, 1938 mainly dealt with regulation of insurance business as such and not with any general or special principles of the law relating fire of other insurance contracts. So also the General Insurance Business (Nationalization) Act, 1872. in the absence of any legislative enactment on the subject , the courts in India have in dealing with the topic of fire insurance have relied so far on judicial decisions of Courts and opinions of English Jurists.

In determining the value of property damaged or destroyed by fire for the purpose of indemnity under a policy of fire insurance, it was the value of the property to the insured, which was to be measured. Prima facie that value was measured by reference of the market value of the property before and after the loss. However such method of assessment was not applicable in cases where the market value did not represent the real value of the property to the insured, as where the property was used by the insured as a home or, for carrying business. In such cases, the measure of indemnity was the cost of reinstatement. In the case of Lucas v. New Zealand Insurance Co. Ltd.[1] where the insured property was purchased and held as an income-producing investment, and therefore the court held that the proper measure of indemnity for damage to the property by fire was the cost of reinstatement.

INSURABLE INTEREST

A person who is so interested in a property as to have benefit from its existence and prejudice by its destruction is said to have insurable interest in that property. Such a person can insure the property against fire.

The interest in the property must exist both at the inception as well as at the time of loss. If it does not exist at the commencement of the contract it cannot be the subject-matter of the insurance and if it does not exist at the time of the loss, he suffers no loss and needs no indemnity. Thus, where he sells the insured property and it is damaged by fire thereafter, he suffers no loss.

RISKS COVERED UNDER FIRE INSURANCE POLICY

The date of conclusion of a contract of insurance is issuance of the policy is different from the acceptance or assumption of risk. Section 64-VB only lays down broadly that the insurer cannot assume risk prior to the date of receipt of premium. Rule 58 of the Insurance Rules, 1939 speaks about advance payment of premiums in view of sub section (!) of Section 64 VB which enables the insurer to assume the risk from the date onwards. If the proposer did not desire a particular date, it was possible for the proposer to negotiate with insurer about that term. Precisely, therefore the Apex Court has said that final acceptance is that of the assured or the insurer depends simply on the way in which negotiations for insurance have progressed. Though the following are risks which seem to have covered Fire Insurance Policy but are not totally covered under the Policy. Some of contentious areas are as follows:

FIRE: Destruction or damage to the property insured by its own fermentation, natural heating or spontaneous combustion or its undergoing any heating or drying process cannot be treated as damage due to fire. For e.g., paints or chemicals in a factory undergoing heat treatment and consequently damaged by fire is not covered. Further, burning of property insured by order of any Public Authority is excluded from the scope of cover.

LIGHTNING : Lightning may result in fire damage or other types of damage, such as a roof broken by a falling chimney struck by lightning or cracks in a building due to a lightning strike. Both fire and other types of damages caused by lightning are covered by the policy.

AIRCRAFT DAMAGE: The loss or damage to property (by fire or otherwise) directly caused by aircraft and other aerial devices and/ or articles dropped there from is covered. However, destruction or damage resulting from pressure waves caused by aircraft traveling at supersonic speed is excluded from the scope of the policy.

RIOTS, STRIKES, MALICIOUS AND TERRORISM DAMAGES: The act of any person taking part along with others in any disturbance of public peace (other than war, invasion, mutiny, civil commotion etc.) is construed to be a riot, strike or a terrorist activity. Unlawful action would not be covered under the policy.

STORM, CYCLONE, TYPHOON, TEMPEST, HURRICANE, TORNADO, FLOOD and INUNDATION: Storm, Cyclone, Typhoon, Tempest, Tornado and Hurricane are all various types of violent natural disturbances that are accompanied by thunder or strong winds or heavy rainfall. Flood or Inundation occurs when the water rises to an abnormal level. Flood or inundation should not only be understood in the common sense of the terms, i.e., flood in river or lakes, but also accumulation of water due to choked drains would be deemed to be flood.

IMPACT DAMAGE: Impact by any Rail/ Road vehicle or animal by direct contact with the insured property is covered. However, such vehicles or animals should not belong to or owned by the insured or any occupier of the premises or their employees while acting in the course of their employment.

SUBSIDENCE AND LANDSLIDE INCULUDING ROCKSIDE: Destruction or damage caused by Subsidence of part of the site on which the property stands or Landslide/ Rockslide is covered. While Subsidence means sinking of land or building to a lower level, Landslide means sliding down of land usually on a hill.

However, normal cracking, settlement or bedding down of new structures; settlement or movement of made up ground; coastal or river erosion; defective design or workmanship or use of defective materials; and demolition, construction, structural alterations or repair of any property or ground-works or excavations, are not covered.

BURSTING AND/OR OVERFLOWING OF WATER TANKS, APPARATUS AND PIPES: Loss or damage to property by water or otherwise on account of bursting or accidental overflowing of water tanks, apparatus and pipes is covered.

MISSILE TESTING OPERATIONS: Destruction or damage, due to impact or otherwise from trajectory/ projectiles in connection with missile testing operations by the Insured or anyone else, is covered.

LEAKAGE FROM AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER INSTALLATIONS: Damage, caused by water accidentally discharged or leaked out from automatic sprinkler installations in the insured's premises, is covered. However, such destruction or damage caused by repairs or alterations to the buildings or premises; repairs removal or extension of the sprinkler installation; and defects in construction known to the insured, are not covered.

BUSH FIRE: This covers damage caused by burning, whether accidental or otherwise, of bush and jungles and the clearing of lands by fire, but excludes destruction or damage, caused by Forest Fire.

RISKS NOT COVERED BY FIRE INSURANCE POLICY

Claims not maintainable/ covered under this policy are as follows:

o Theft during or after the occurrence of any insured risks

o War or nuclear perils

o Electrical breakdowns

o Ordered burning by a public authority

o Subterranean fire

o Loss or damage to bullion, precious stones, curios (value more than Rs.10000), plans, drawings, money, securities, cheque books, computer records except if they are categorically included.

o Loss or damage to property moved to a different location (except machinery and equipment for cleaning, repairs or renovation for more than 60 days).

CHARACTERICTICS OF FIRE INSURANCE CONTRACT

A fire insurance contract has the following characteristics namely:

(a) Fire insurance is a personal contract

A fire insurance contract does not ensure the safety of the insured property. Its purpose is to see that the insured does not suffer loss by reason of his interest in the insured property. Hence, if his connection with the insured property ceases by being transferred to another person, the contract of insurance also comes to an end. It is not so connected with the subject matter of the insurance as to pass automatically to the new owner to whom the subject is transferred. The contract of fire insurance is thus a mere a personal contract between the insured and the insurer for the payment of money. It can be validly assigned to another only with the consent of the insurer.

(b) It is entire and indivisible contract.

Where the insurance is of a binding and its contents of stock and machinery, the contract is expressly agreed to be divisible. Thus , where the insured is guilty of breach of duty towards the insurer in respect of one subject matters covered by the policy , the insurer can avoid the contract as a whole and not only in respect of that particular subject mater , unless the right is restricted by the terms of the policy.

(c) Cause of fire is immaterial

In insuring against fire, the insured wishes to protect him from any loss or detriment which he may suffer upon the occurrence of a fire, however it may be caused. So long as the loss is due to fire within the meaning of the policy, it is immaterial what the cause of fire is, generally. Thus , whether it was because the fire was lighted improperly or was lighted properly but negligently attended to thereafter or whether the fire was caused on account of the negligence of the insured or his servants or strangers is immaterial and the insurer is liable to indemnify the insured. In the absence of fraud, the proximate cause of the loss only is to be looked to.

The cause of the fire however becomes material to be investigated

(1). Where the fire is occasioned not by the negligence of, but by the willful

(2) Where the fire is due is to cause falling with the exception in the contract.

LIMITATION OF TIME

Indemnity insurance was an agreement by the insurer to confer on the insured a contractual right, which prima facie, came into existence immediately when the loss was suffered by the happening of an event insured against, to be put by the insurer into the same position in which the accused would have had the event not occurred but in no better position. There was a primary liability, i.e. to indemnify, and a secondary liability i.e. to put the insured in his pre-loss position, either by paying him a specifying amount or it might be in some other manner. But the fact that the insurer had an option as to the way in which he would put the insured into pre-loss position did not mean that he was not liable to indemnify him in one way or another, immediately the loss occurred. The primary liability arises on the happening of the event insured against. So, the time ran from the date of the loss and not from the date on which the policy was avoided and any suit filed after that time limit would be barred by limitation.[2]

WHO MAY INSURE AGAINST FIRE?

Only those who have insurable interest in a property can take fire insurance thereon. The following are among the class of persons who have been held to possess insurable interest in, property and can insure such property:

1. Owners of property, whether sole, or joint owner, or partner in the firm owning the property. It is not necessary that they should possession also. Thus a lesser and a lessee can both insure it jointly or severely.

2. The vender and purchaser have both rights to insure. The vendor's interest continues until the conveyance is completed and even thereafter, if he has an unpaid vendor's lien over it.

3. The mortgagor and mortgagee have both distinct interests in the mortgaged property and can insure, per Lord Esher M.R."The mortgagee does not claim his interest through the mortgagor , but by virtue of the mortgage which has given him an interest distinct from that of the mortgagor"[3]

4. Trustees are legal owners and beneficiaries the beneficial owners of trust property and each can insure it.

5. Bailees such as carriers, pawnbrokers or warehouse men are responsible for there safety of the property entrusted to them and so can insure it.

PERSON NOT ENTITLED TO INSURE

One who has no insurable interest in a property cannot insure it. For example:

1. An unsecured creditor cannot insure his debtor's property, because his right is only against the debtor personally. He can, however, insure the debtor's life.

2. A shareholder in a company cannot insure the property of the company as he has no insurable interest in any asset of the company even if he is the sole shareholder. As was the case of Macaura v. Northen Assurance Co.[4] Macaura. Because neither as a simple creditor nor as a shareholder had he any insurable interest in it.

CONCEPT OF UTMOST FAITH

As all contracts of insurance are contracts of utmost good faith, the proposer for fire insurance is also under a positive duty to make a full disclosure of all material facts and not to make any misrepresentations or misdescreptions thereof during the negotiations for obtaining the policy. This duty of utmost good faith applies equally to the insurer and the insured. There must be complete good faith on the part of the assured. This duty to observe utmost good faith is ensured b requiring the proposer to declare that the statements in the proposal form are true, that they shall be the basis of the contract and that any incorrect or false statement therein shall avoid the policy. The insurer can then rely on them to assess the risk and to fix appropriate premium and accept the risk or decline it.

The questions in the proposal form for a fire policy are so framed as to get all information which is material to the insurer to know in order to assess the risk and fix the premium, that is, all material facts. Thus the proposer is required too give information relating to:

o The proposer's name and address and occupation

o The description of the subject matter to be insured sufficient for the purpose of identifying it including,

o A description of the locality where it is situated

o How the property is being used, whether for any manufacturing purpose or hazardous trade.etc

o Whether it has already been insured

o And also ant personal insurance history including the claims if any made buy the proposer, etc.

Apart from questions in the proposal form, the proposer should disclose whether questioned or not-

1. Any information which would indicate the risk of fire to be above normal;

2. Any fact which would indicate that the insurer's liability may be more than normal can be expected such as existence of valuable manuscripts or documents, etc, and

3. Any information bearing upon the more; hazard involved.

The proposer is not obliged to disclose-

1. Information which the insurer may be presumed to know in the ordinary course of his business as an insurer;

2. Facts which tend to show that the risk is lesser than otherwise;

3. Facts as to which information is waived by the insurer; and

4. Facts which need not disclosed in view of a policy condition.

Thus, assured is under a solemn obligation to make full disclosure of material facts which may be relevant for the insurer to take into account while deciding whether the proposal should be accepted or not. While making a disclosure of the relevant facts, the

DOCTRINE OF PROXIMATE CAUSE

Where more perils than one act simultaneously or successively, it will be difficult to assess the relative effect of each peril or pick out one of these as the actual cause of the loss. In such cases, the doctrine of proximate cause helps to determine the actual cause of the loss.
Proximate cause was defined in Pawsey v. Scottish Union and National Ins. Co.,[5]as "the active, effective cause that sets in motion a train of events which brings about a result without the intervention of any force started and working actively from a new and independent source." It is dominant and effective cause even though it is not the nearest in time. It is therefore necessary when a loss occurs to investigate and ascertain what is the proximate cause of the loss in order to determine whether the insurer is liable for the loss.

PROXIMATE CAUSE OF DAMAGE

A fire policy covers risks where damage is caused by way of fire. The fire may be caused by lightening, by explosion or implosion. It may be result of riot, strike or on account of any, malicious act. However these factors must ultimately lead to a fire and the fire must be the proximate cause of damage. Therefore, a loss caused by theft of property by militants would not be covered by the fire policy. The view that the loss was covered under the malicious act clause and therefore .the insurer was liable to meet the claim is untenable, because unless and until fire is the proximate cause f damage, no claim under a fire policy would be maintainable.[6]

PROCEDURE FOR TAKING A FIRE INSURANCE POLICY

The steps involved for taking a fire insurance policy are mentioned below:

1. Selection of the Insurance Company:

There are many companies that offer fire insurance against unforeseen events. The individual or the company must take care in the selection of an insurance company. The judgment should rest on factors like goodwill, and long term standing in the market. The insurance companies can either be approached directly or through agents, some of them who are appointed by the company itself.

2. Submission of the Proposal Form:

The individual or the business owner must submit a completed prescribed proposal form with the necessary details to the insurance company for proper consideration and subsequent approval. The information in the Proposal Form should be given in good faith and must be accompanied by documents that verify the actual worth of the property or goods that are to be insured. Most of the companies have their own personalized Proposal Forms wherein the exact information has to be provided.

3. Survey of the Property/ Consideration:

Once the duly filled Proposal Form is submitted to the insurance company, it makes an "on the spot" survey of the property or the goods that are the subject matter of the insurance. This is usually done by the investigators, or the surveyors, who are appointed by the company and they need to report back to them after a thorough research and survey. This is imperative to assess the risk involved and calculate the rate of premium.

4. Acceptance of the Proposal:

Once the detailed and comprehensive report is submitted to the insurance company by the surveyors and related officers, the former makes a thorough perusal of the Proposal Form and the report. If the company is satisfied that their is no lacuna or foul play or fraud involved, it formally "accepts" the Proposal Form and directs the insured to pay the first premium to the company. It is to be noted that the insurance policy commences after the payment and the acceptance of the premium by the insured and the company, respectively. The Insurance Company issues a Cover Note after the acceptance of the first premium.

PROCEDURE ON RECEIPT OF NOTICE OF LOSS

On receipt of the notice of loss, the insurer requires the insured to furnish details pertaining to the loss in a claim from relating to the following information-

1. Circumstances and cause of the fire;

2. Occupancy and situation of the premises in which the fire occurred;

3. Insured's interest in the insured property; that is capacity in which the insured claims and whether any others are interested in the property;

4. Other insurances on the property;

5. Value of each item of the property at the time of loss together with proofs thereof , and value of the salvage ,if any; and

6. Amount claimed

Furnishing such information relating to the claim is also a condition precedent to the liability of the insurer. The above information will enable the insurer to verify whether-

(1) The policy is in force;

(2) The peril causing the loss is an insured peril;

(3) The property damaged or lost is the insured property.

Rules for calculation of value of property

The value of the insured property is-

1) Its value at the time of loss, and

2) At the place of loss, and

3) Its real or intrinsic value without any regard for its sentimental vale. Loss of prospective profit or other consequential loss is not to be taken into account.

FILING OF CLAIMS

How a claim arises?

After a contract of fire insurance has come into existence, a claim may arise by the operation of one or more insured perils on an unsecured property. There may in addition one or more uninsured perils also operating simultaneously or in succession of the property. In order that the claim should be valid the following conditions must be fulfilled:

1. The occurrence should take place due to the operation of an insured peril or where both insured and other perils operated , the dominant or efficient cause of the loss must have been an insured peril;

2. The operation of the peril must not come within the scope of the policy exceptions;

3. The event must have caused loss or damage of the insured property;

4. The occurrence must be during the currency of the policy;

5. The insured must have fulfilled all the policy conditions and should also comply with requirements to be fulfilled after the claim had arisen.

MATERIAL FACTS IN FIRE INSURANCE: PREVIOUS CONVICTION OF THE ACCUSED

The criminal record of an assured could affect the moral hazard, which insurers had to assess, and the non-disclosure of a serious criminal offence like robbery by the plaintiff would a material non-disclosure.

INSURED'S DUTY ON OUTBREAK OF FIRE, IMPLIED DUTY

On the outbreak of a fire the insured is under an implied duty to observe good faith towards the insurers and the in pursuance of it the insured must do his best to avert or minimize the loss. For this purpose he must (1) take all reasonable measures to put out the fire or prevent its spread, and (2) assist the fire brigade and others in their attempts to do so at any rate not come in their way.
With this object the insured property may be removed to a place of safety. Any loss or damage the insured property may sustain in the course of attempts to combat the fire or during its removal to a place of safety etc., will be deemed to be loss proximately caused by the fire.

If the insured fails in his duty willfully and thereby increases the burden of the insurer, the insured will be deprived of his right to revive any indemnity under the policy.[7]

INSURER'S RIGHTS ON THE OUTBREAK OF FIRE

(A) Implied Rights

Corresponding to the insured's duties the insurers have rights by the law, in view of the liability they have undertaken to indemnify the insured. Thus the insurers have a right to-

o Take reasonable measures to extinguish the fire and to minimize the loss to property, and

o For that purpose, to enter upon and take possession of the property.

The insurers will be liable to make good all the damage the property may sustain during the steps taken to put out the fire and as long as it in their possession, because all that is considered the natural and direct consequence of the fire; it has therefore been held in the case of Ahmedbhoy Habibhoy v. Bombay Fire Marine Ins. Co [8] that the extent of the damage flowing from the insured peril must be assessed when the insurer gives back and not as at the time when the peril ceased.

(B) Loss caused by steps taken to avert the risk

Damage sustained due to action taken to avoid an insured risk was not a consequence of that risk and was not recoverable unless the insured risk had begun to operate. In the case of Liverpool and London and Globe Insurance Co. Ltd v. Canadian General Electric Co. Ltd., [9] the Canadian Supreme Court held that "the loss was caused by the fire fighters' mistaken belief that their action was necessary to avert an explosion , and the loss was not recoverable under the insurance policy, which covered only damage caused by fire explosion., and the loss was not recoverable under the insurance policy, which covered only damage caused by fire or explosion."

(C) Express rights

Condition 5- in order to protect their rights well insurers have prescribed for better rights expressly in this condition according to which on the happening of any destruction or damage the insurer and every person authorized by the insurer may enter, take or keep possession of the building or premises where the damage has happened or require it to be delivered to them and deal with it for all reasonable purposes like examining, arranging, removing or sell or dispose off the same for the account of whom it may concern.

When and how a claim is made?

In the event of a fire loss covered under the fire insurance policy, the Insured shall immediately give notice thereof to the insurance company. Within 15 days of the occurrence of such loss, the Insured should submit a claim in writing, giving the details of damages and their estimated values. Details of other insurances on the same property should also be declared.

The Insured should procure and produce, at his own expense, any document like plans, account books, investigation reports etc. on demand by the insurance company.

HOW INSURANCE MAY CEASE?

Insurance under a fire policy may cease in any of the following circumstances, namely:

(1) Insurer avoiding the policy by reason of the insured making misrepresentation, misdescription or non-disclosure of any material particular;

(2) If there is a fall or displacement of any insured building range or structure or part thereof , then on the expiry of seven days wherefrom, except where the fall or displacement was due to the action of any insured peril; notwithstanding this, the insurance may be revived on revised terms if express notice is given to the company as soon as the occurrence takes place;

(3) The insurance may be terminated at any tie at the request of the insured and at the option of the company on 15 days notice to the insured

CONCLUSION

Tangible property is exposed to numerous risks like fire, floods, explosions, earthquake, riot and war, etc. and insurance protection can be had against most of these risks severally or in combination. The form in which the cover is expressed is numerous and varied. Fire insurance in its strict sense is concerned with giving protection against fire and fire only. So while granting a fire insurance policy all the requisites need be fulfilled. The insured are under a moral and legal obligation to be at utmost good faith and should be telling true facts and not just fake grounds only with the greed to recover money. Further all insurance policies help in the development of a Developing nation. Hence insurance companies have a burden to help the insured when the insured are in trouble.

REFERENCE:

1. (1983) VR 698 (Supreme Court of Vienna)

2. Callaghan v. Dominion Insurance Co. Ltd. (1997) 2 Lloyd's Rep. 541 (QBD)

3. Small v. U.K Marine Insurance Association (1897) 2 QB 311
4. (1925) AC 619

5. (1907) Case.

6. National Insurance Company v. Ashok Kumar Barariio

7. Devlin v. Queen Insurance Co, (1882) 46 UCR 611.

8. (1912) 40 IA 10 PC

9. (1981) 123 DLR (3d) 513 (Supreme Court of Canada)

Books Referred:

1. The Economics of Fire Protection by Ganapathy Ramachandran

2. Modern Insurance Law, by John Birds

3. The Handbook of Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority Act and Regulations with Allied Laws ,by Nagar

Fire Insurance Under Indian Insurance Law

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Pennsylvania Wage Garnishment Law

Can my wages be garnished? That may be the number one question that I receive at my office from individuals who are facing a credit card or debt collection lawsuit.

In Pennsylvania, the answer is no, with conditions. Pennsylvania is one of only four states (at the time of this writing) that does not allow wage garnishment for credit card/collection agency lawsuits. Let me explain the conditions now. First, the individual must live and work in PA to be protected. Second, and this is a big one, the lawsuit must have been filed in Pennsylvania as well. If you can meet all three of the listed criteria, your wages cannot be garnished here in our state.

Criminal Law

What is unclear is what happens if you are sued in another state? Or if you live in PA now but previously lived in another state where judgment was entered? There is not a whole lot of case law on interstate debt collection regarding Pennsylvania. There is also a bit of a conflict in the law here. Pennsylvania does not allow wage garnishment for this type of debt. However, the federal Full Faith and Credit Clause sets forth that all states must honor the judicial rulings of other states. On the other hand, our state Attorney General, although not the final arbiter on the issue, has set forth an opinion that this clause is contrary to Pennsylvania law on this issue and that wage garnishment are not permissible. A final decision needs to be rendered on this recurring subject.

Pennsylvania Wage Garnishment Law

Unfortunately, the fact that wage garnishments cannot occur in PA does not stop unethical debt collectors from making such a threat. That is the basis for the telephone calls to my office. Joe Debtor has defaulted on a credit card account. His account gets transferred to a collection agency. The collection agency then calls Joe and demands payment. When he advises that he cannot afford to pay, the collection agency threatens a wage garnishment. There are two problems with such a threat. The first is that the threat cannot be carried out because wage garnishment is not legal in PA for those purposes. The second is that the debt collector has just violated the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act based upon his illegal threat. If this happens to you, you will have the right to file a lawsuit against the collection agency for monetary damages.

There are a few scenarios where wage garnishment is legal in Pennsylvania. These are very limited in scope and are as follows:

1) for judgments regarding spousal or child support;
2) for failure to pay PHEAA student loans;
3) for room and board for 4 weeks or less;
4) for back rent on a residential lease; and
5) for obligations relating to a final divorce distribution.

Pennsylvania Wage Garnishment Law

Greg Artim is a consumer attorney based in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania. For more answers to your PA Wage Garnishment questions, be sure to visit his website at PA Garnishment Attorney

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Silly Laws in Virginia

Anybody that's ever looked through anything passed by a legislative body has likely seen a number of strange things included that had little or nothing to do with the main bill or law. These riders are often included to appease a small constituency and don't always have a big or lasting impact. Sometimes these riders come in the form of money for a state or district, and sometimes they come in the form of rules and laws that are quote often, to be frank, silly. Here are some of the silly laws that have managed to make it on the books in Virginia, even if only for a short time.

Politics As Usual?
This is one that just makes you shake your head. There is a state law "prohibiting corrupt practices of bribery by any person other than candidates." This sounds like the type of law that a corrupt politician got passed to help themselves retain their office against a better, more morally pure candidate.

Criminal Law

No Tickle Parties
I'd like to think that this law was the result of a more conservative time in the state's history, but I honestly can't think of any reason to pass a law that makes it illegal to tickle women. Maybe there was a tickle bandit, but I suspect puritan hands are to blame for this law.

Silly Laws in Virginia

Hunting Season
There has been a law in Virginia making it illegal to hunt for any animal on Sunday, with the sole exception of raccoons, which may be hunted until 2 AM.

Apparently whoever passed this law didn't feel that raccoons were really one of God's creatures and thus not worthy of his protection on Sundays.

Clean Your Mule
This has to be an old law as I think it's fair to say that nobody has attempted this in some time. In Culpepper it was made illegal to wash a mule on the sidewalk. I really hope this isn't a recent law as it may be too much for my mind to handle.

Dress For the Hour
This law is clearly something of an antiquity, but it still makes you want to know the reasoning behind it. There has been a law on the books in Norfolk, Virginia that required women to wear a corset after sundown and to be in the company of a male chaperone.

Civility is Key
This law likely goes back to a time when we put more of a premium on civility towards each other. There was enacted a law in Prince William County that made it illegal to cuss about another person. Maybe this also made gossip more civil as well.

Who Gets the Tab?
I'm working under the assumption that this law was passed in response to gambling issues in relation to restaurants, though I could be way off base.

In Richmond, a law was passed making it illegal to flip a coin in a restaurant to see who pays for a coffee. I'm not sure why coffee alone was singled out in this law, nor am I aware of a history of coffee and gambling going hand in hand.

Warning! Lady Driver!
As it has never, to the best of my knowledge, been illegal for women to drive in this country, I honestly don't know what to make of this one. In Waynesboro a law was passed making it against the law for a woman to drive a car up Main Street unless her husband was walking in front of the car waving a red flag. Did this mean that unmarried women couldn't drive on Main Street in Waynesboro? I appreciate a female driver joke here and there within reason, but this seems to be taking the notion to excess.

Only the Tip of the Iceberg
This is just a small sampling of the silly laws that you can find not only in Virginia, but across the country. While some may have reasoning behind them, in the end they seem frivolous, even though to this day many of them remain on the books of many states, cities, and counties.

Silly Laws in Virginia

Will Fitzcairn has a long interest in the law and attorneys, including Richmond business attorneys and Richmond personal injury attorneys. To learn more about these types of law and others, visit Meyer, Goergen & Marrs at: MGM-Law.com.

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Lack of Education Contributes to Crime

As more and more low-income families move into neighborhoods that once catered to the middle or upper class, one must be on the lookout for his own personal safety and report any criminal activity going on in their surroundings. Crime is everywhere in these neighborhoods where kids find too much time on their hands after school hours or after the school year lets out.

What also contributes to the crime rate in such places? Is it just the lack of money for low income families? Sometimes, crime can be attributed to the lack of education on the part of the perpetrator or their families.

Criminal Law

It is a statistical fact that the crime rate is inversely proportional to the education level of the culprit. Kids who grow up in families that do not stress the importance of getting an education are more likely to be living out on the streets, doing drugs, joining gangs, or ending up in prison.

Lack of Education Contributes to Crime

Sometimes parents who raise such kids were raised in similar conditions when they were youngsters. Nothing has changed. An education should be foremost on parents' minds when rearing their kids. In fact, an education is the key out of poverty. As the old saying goes, "The way out of the gutter is with a book and not a basketball."

Kids who do not have a good education in school are more likely to have difficulty with finding jobs, getting into college, or staying out of trouble with the law. Many times they have family issues that are attributed to the loss of a parent at a young age due to a death or an incarceration.

Kids from single-parent homes run that risk of growing up as an "at-risk" child. This is due to the fact that the parent must work to provide food and shelter for the child, and the absence of the other parent fails to provide leadership and guidance for a growing mind. A parent who is incarcerated will definitely not be around to guide the child to getting good grades in school.

What kind of message does an incarcerated parent send to a child? Is it okay to be dumb and stupid and end up in prison like their daddy? Like father, like son. Right? Is it okay to skip school and join a gang like their daddy once did?

The truth of the matter is that kids who drop out of school will face hardship in their lives as they grow older. Lack of education on their part means lack of money to support a family. Lack of money translates into robbing a bank or convenience store.

We hear in the news every day a robbery that occurs in our city or elsewhere. Or perhaps a shooting on the part of the perpetrator that caused an innocent life come to an abrupt halt.

What are kids doing nowadays? How can we prevent our own kids from becoming troubled kids? For one, a parent must be a good role model and stress the importance of a good education. That means the parents must take an active role in their child's education by monitoring how much television the child is allowed to watch and taking charge of knowing the kinds of friends that his child associates with. Furthermore, this means maintaining communication with his teachers at school and looking over his report card regularly.

A child with poor academic performance may indicate something wrong at school. Perhaps he does not like school due to external influences; i.e. bullying, difficult teachers, taunting by other students, or peer pressure.

It is better to catch the child's problem as early as possible before it comes to the point that the child is truant from school, or worse, acts out his frustration that is reflected in another Virginia Tech-like massacre.

A child should like his studies and should show interest in his schoolwork. He should be taught that good grades will help him get a good education so that he can get a good paying job and be a productive member of society after he graduates.

Teach your child that involvement in gangs, violence, drugs, and/or extortion will not get him anywhere but prison. Once a person ends up doing life in prison, there IS no second chance. There is no freedom for him. There is no TV, no video games, no music, nothing! Not even a chance to get an education behind bars. If there is school in prison, the education is very limited.

If you are raising a child, question your child as to what is going on in school if he/she displays academic difficulty. Spend some quality time with him/her. Help them with their homework if possible. Remember, you are not just his/her friend, you are their parents. You are the first role model that a child looks toward from infancy. So be a good one and teach him/her what is right by staying in school.

There is a story in Austin, Texas a few years ago. It involved a troubled 17-year-old kid, Manuel Cortez, a high school dropout, who went out with his friends in a stolen car one sunny afternoon, and shot another student, Christopher Briseno, whom he did not even know because Briseno allegedly was teasing the sister of Manuel's friend. Manuel Cortez is now serving life in prison because he made a stupid decision. Now families of the victim and the perpetrator are suffering two losses from society. All for what? Because Mr. Cortez chose to drop out of school and associate with gangs and/or violence? He chose to give up the possibility of an education so that he can run around gang banging? Or did he not have the proper support and guidance from his parents?

Lack of Education Contributes to Crime

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Free Criminal Background Check - Get Someone's Criminal History Free

Getting a free criminal background check is definitely something that is in high demand. With all of the current events pointing to relatives and close family friends as the culprit to some of the most violent and disgusting crimes, these types of reports are becoming common place in our society.

So, how do you get free police records?

Criminal Law

In order to get someones criminal history check completely free of charge one must understand the technology that they currently have at their disposal. Where is the first place that most people go for information on line usually? Yup, you guessed it, Google. The same holds true for trying to lookup public records. You will be surprised to know that most newspapers and courthouses publish certain information online. This type of information normally includes arrest records and criminal history logs. For instance, if a news paper has a section of the paper that includes a police and fire section usually they will have a list of arrests for any given week.

Free Criminal Background Check - Get Someone's Criminal History Free

It is because of this that you can often times dig up relevant information online by simply searching for their name, phone number, or address. It is wise to search for the various terms in a number of ways including, with quotation marks, without quotation marks, and different variations that you can come up to. One thing to keep in mind that due to the sheer power of a tool like Google you are often going to have many thousand or hundreds of thousands of results to sift through. Because of this, it is not always possible to rely on this method unless you have plenty of free time. This is especially true when you are seeking to do a criminal lookup on a person with a common name.

Is There another way to access public records?

Yes, there certainly are other options to get to the bottom of someones criminal past. when someone gets arrested or convicted of a felony or a lessor charge, this information is often considered to be a matter of public record. Because of this, you may be able to gain access to someones arrest record by getting access to the courthouses public database.

In order to do this though, you will first have to make an initial visit to the court in whatever jurisdiction the person lives in or has lived in for a majority of their life and fill out an application for information. Often times the different courts might have a website where you can apply electronically however, most of them require that you do it in person. After you have filled out the proper paperwork it usually takes anywhere from twenty four to seventy two hours for them to either approve or deny your request. If you are approved you will then have the opportunity to visit the courthouse and gain a limited amount of access to the public records database.

Keep in mind that the information that you are presented with is usually not organized or sorted in any particular way and it could take you several days to get the police records that you are looking for. It is also worth mentioning that if the person that you are investigating has lived in more than one city or state that these steps could possibly have to be repeated several times over in order to get the records that you are looking for. The people that have the most amount of success with this method are the people that have disposable time or time that is not already dedicated to other projects. While time consuming, if used correctly with a little bit of patience success is possible.

What if the above methods do not get me the background check I need?

If the above methods fail to get you the free criminal background check that you are looking for it is possible that you have to explore other options. By other options I am referring to sites that are available online for all of us to use that maintain a database of most of the countries population and the crimes they have convicted along with relevant convictions. One thing about these types of sites that is important to note is that the results are instant. From the time you enter the website you are in possession of a criminal history report in under a few minutes. It is this feature alone that makes these services so attractive and convenient to the do it yourself investigator. The report includes a detailed criminal background report on the target of your investigation that includes information such as arrests, convictions, address report, phone report, social security number verification, known associates, bankruptcy information, marriage records, divorce records, and other information that might be pertinent to your investigation.

Free Criminal Background Check - Get Someone's Criminal History Free

If you have a gut feeling and want to do a Criminal Background Check on anyone for any reason use an online database of Public Records.

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How to Get Pennsylvania Adult Criminal Records Expunged or Erased

A criminal record can have a very serious negative impact upon your life. It can hurt your reputation, lessen your earnings capacity, keep you from obtaining licenses or certifications in certain professions (for example, lawyer or teacher) or keep you from being employed at all. To the extent that you can, if you have such a record, you should have it expunged as soon as possible.

In Pennsylvania, to get adult criminal records expunged, the individual must file a Petition for Expungement with the Court of Common Pleas in the county in which the offenses occurred. At the time the petition is filed, a hearing is scheduled before a judge who will determine if the expungement request should be granted.

Criminal Law

With two exceptions, only non-conviction data can be expunged. Non-conviction data includes:

How to Get Pennsylvania Adult Criminal Records Expunged or Erased

1. Arrest records that show no disposition took place after 18 months and the court of the proper jurisdiction certifies that no action is pending.

2. Cases that were dismissed or discharged because of lack of evidence or lack of prosecution or because there was no finding of guilt after trial.

3. Cases that were dismissed or discharged because the offender successfully complied with the terms and conditions of certain pretrial dispositions such as the ARD (Accelerated Rehabilitative Disposition) program.

Conviction data may be expunged where the offender is 70 years old and has been free of arrest for at least ten years following his or her final release from supervision. It may also be expunged where the offender had been deceased for at least three years.

In determining if the request for expungement should be granted, the court will take into consideration many factors. These include damage to the individual's reputation, his livelihood and future earnings capacity, the nature and gravity of the offense, the individual's prior criminal history and the state's interest in preserving the record to protect the public.

State law specifically prohibits the courts from expunging records, even though the offender has successfully complied with the terms of ARD where he or she had been charged with certain sexual assault or related offenses against victims under the age of 18.

The Court order for expungement will be promptly submitted to the Pennsylvania State Police Central Repository for Criminal History Information in Harrisburg, Pa. This agency will disseminate the order for expungement to all other agencies who have previously receive the information that is the subject of the order.

It is important to have complete and accurate criminal history information when filing your request. The Petition for and proposed Order of Expungement must contain by statute information such as the subject's name, date of birth, social security number, the offenses with which the subject was charged, the case's docket number, the offense tracking number and the disposition of the case. If this information is not contained in the Petition, the court will dismiss it.

How to Get Pennsylvania Adult Criminal Records Expunged or Erased

Rosanne O'Malley is a former legal professional with hands on experience with the Pennsylvania legal system. Currently, she is looking for different opportunities and experiences. To visit her website, with many different articles on subjects of interest to her and hopefully others, visit [http://www.goodcompanyandgooddiscourse.blogspot.com]

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Boilerplate Provisions

When it comes to contract law, there are certain instances where the same rules apply for a specific type of contract time and time again. As these provisions become increasingly repeated, they may become what are known as boilerplate provisions, upon which boilerplate contracts can be based. While boilerplates are usually reserved for consumer contracts and service term agreements, boilerplate provisions can be commonly used in employee contracts to save the effort of individualizing each contract. However, as useful as boilerplates are, they can lead to problems with both parties if these contracts or provisions are not carefully treated and examined.

From a consumer or employee's standpoint, a common problem that many run into with boilerplate contracts is possible abuse of power. Boilerplate contracts are, by their nature, non-negotiable. The standard form contract is usually served or presented by someone who does not have a legal background, as these people are usually more involved in sales departments, meaning that they may not be willing or able to change any given provisions. Boilerplate contracts may lead to a take-it-or-leave-it mindset, in which any complaints are not addressed legally.

Criminal Law

Socially, boilerplates can be dangerous for those signing. In general, fine print in boilerplates are rarely completely read by those signing, even if it is in an employment contract. For some, this is out of laziness, while, for others, the peer pressure of the company can be sufficient to skip detailed provisions. With some boilerplate provisions, the definition of legal terms will not be provided within the contract, making it impossible to fully understand the terms of agreement by reading the contract alone.

Boilerplate Provisions

Contract law has developed into an increasingly jargon-filled legal field that is almost inaccessible to the average person. To learn more about addressing employment contract concerns that include boilerplate provisions, contact an employment attorney.

Boilerplate Provisions

If you have been faced with legal problems concerning your terms of employment, contact the Houston employment attorneys of the Ross Law Group today.

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Rhode Island RI Common Law Marriage - Fact Or Fiction

Fiction- If I live together with my boyfriend for over seven years then we are automatically common law married.

This is a huge urban myth that is completely and totally false! In fact, a couple could live together for 35 years in Rhode Island and still not be common law married! However, another couple could live together for 7 days and be married.

Criminal Law

How can this be true??

Rhode Island RI Common Law Marriage - Fact Or Fiction

This article only applies to Rhode Island. Also, a vast majority of states do not recognize common law marriages. Please contact Rhode Island divorce and family law lawyer, David Slepkow, to help evaluate whether you can successfully establish a common law marriage in Rhode Island.

In order to establish a common law marriage in Rhode Island, a couple must have "seriously intended to enter into the husband-wife relationship." Demelo v. Zompa, 844 A.2d 174 "The parties conduct also must be of such a character as to lead to a belief in the community that they were married." Demelo v. Zompa 844 A.2d 174 "The prerequisite serious intent and belief is demonstrable by inference from cohabitation, declarations, reputation among kindred and friends, and other circumstancial evidence." Demelo v. Zompa, 844 A.2d 174

A crucial element to common law marriage is whether a couple holds themselves out to the community as husband and wife.

I believe that Courts look to several factors in determining if there is a common law marriage. The Court looks at a totality of the circumstances rather than focusing on any one particular factor exclusively. In other words, if one of the following factors doesn't apply there could still be a common law marriage!

Establishing a common law marriage in Rhode island is analogous to building a brick wall. A single brick alone will not build the wall! Pulling out any particular brick will not cause the wall to fall. Similarly, No one factor usually creates a common law marriage. (perhaps, and I emphasize perhaps, the only exception to this is filing married for your federal income taxes) The absence of a single factor usually does not defeat a common law marriage! (The exception to this may be lack of cohabitation but that is not set in stone. I emphasize may be an exception depending on the facts)

The court may look at whether the alleged wife took the husband's last name. The woman's use of husband's last name indicates that the parties were holding themselves out to the community as married and exhibiting a serious intent to enter into a marriage. If a woman takes a man's last name and uses the name in public then that will go a long way in establishing a common law marriage. A woman not taking her significant other's last name will not be fatal to establishing the marriage. Judges are keenly aware that in this day and age, it is common for a woman to use her maiden name after a valid marriage.

The Court will look to see if the parties introduce each other as "my husband" or "my wife" in social settings or when appropriate. The Courts are well aware that married couples usually do not introduce their spouse by his / her first name.

Medical treatment forms, financing applications and other forms may be important to see whether the parties listed the other person as their spouse or even admitted that there was a marriage.

The length of time that the parties lived together may be very relevant . An economic partnership between the parties is also very significant. Joint bank accounts, joint ownership of property, joint accounts, beneficiary designations on retirement plans, insurance applications could all be bricks in a wall of establishing a common law marriage. Please note that these types of factors (such as having a joint bank account together) alone will NOT establish a common law marriage! In this day and age it is not unusual for boyfriends and girlfriends to live together with joint bank accounts or even, perhaps, owning property together without intending to enter into a marriage. However, the above mentioned factors take on importance in conjunction with other significant factors set forth in this article.

There are a myriad of other factors that could be very important in determining whether or not there is a common law marriage. This includes whether a diamond ring or other ring was given and what hand the ring was worn on.

This article in no way establishes all the factors that could be important.

If the parties cannot agree that there was a marriage then witnesses will need to testify in Court to establish a belief and reputation in the community that the parties were married. In other words does your social circle (friends, family, acquaintances ) believe that you and your significant other are married?

One of the most crucial elements of common law marriage is the tax status that the parties claim on their federal and state income tax forms. If the parties filed married filing jointly or married filing separately then some judges would say that the common law marriage is established. A federal tax document is a very significant document and most people know the importance of being truthful when filling it out. I would tend to agree that if the parties filed their taxes as married then they are probably in fact married! If the parties filed as married filing jointly and then one of them denies the common law marriage then they are in a perjury trap. Either they lied to the IRS or they are lying to the Court. Filling single will not be helpful to establish a common law marriage however it is not fatal.

How could a party be common law married after 7 days? Hypothetically, boyfriend and girlfriend invite all their friends to a party which is not officially a wedding. No marriage certificate is sought or obtained by the couple. However, at the party the couple announces to all their friends and family in attendance that they are married, they move in together the next day. The girlfriend puts him on her health insurance. They are probably married by common law after just a week!

If you believe that you are common law married and want to terminate the relationship then you need to file for divorce in Rhode Island family Court seeking to establish the appropriate elements.

Rhode Island RI Common Law Marriage - Fact Or Fiction

David Slepkow is a Rhode Island divorce and family law lawyer / attorney concentrating in divorce, family law, child support, custody and visitation. David has been practicing for over 9 years and is licensed in Rhode Island, Massachusetts and Federal Court. David also handles Rhode Island personal injury, slip and fall and automobile accidents as well as litigation and landlord tenant matters. David always offers free initial consultations and accepts all major credit cards. Please goto Official website of Rhode Island (RI) lawyers, Slepkow Slepkow & Associates, Inc for more legal information or to contact David Slepkow. You can also call attorney David Slepkow at 401-437-1100.

Please visit East Providence, Rhode Island Divorce and Family law Lawyer

Also see: Rhode Island (RI) Child Support law

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How To Find A Name And Address With Mobile Phone Number

There are many ways today to find the name and address with mobile phone number of any person. One of these methods is by using a person's mobile number and do a reverse search. Many websites exist that does reverse searching to find the name and address with mobile phone number of the person. Some of the types of listings or directories that do reverse searching are the following:

There are a few, good reliable websites that gives accurate and reverse search in finding the name and address with mobile number of a person that is readily accessible to the public. The best reverse phone lookups not only let you lookup billing name and address with any phone numbers but also access public records such as criminal history, police records, and other court records.

Criminal Law

How To Find A Name And Address With Mobile Phone Number

How To Find A Name And Address With Mobile Phone Number

You can reverse lookup a cell phone number right now at http://www.NameFromCell.com

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Banking Fraud - Prevention and Control

Banking Fraud is posing threat to Indian Economy. Its vibrant effect can be understood be the fact that in the year 2004 number of Cyber Crime were 347 in India which rose to 481 in 2005 showing an increase of 38.5% while I.P.C. category crime stood at 302 in 2005 including 186 cases of cyber fraud and 68 cases cyber forgery. Thus it becomes very important that occurrence of such frauds should be minimized. More upsetting is the fact that such frauds are entering in Banking Sector as well.

In the present day, Global Scenario Banking System has acquired new dimensions. Banking did spread in India. Today, the banking system has entered into competitive markets in areas covering resource mobilization, human resource development, customer services and credit management as well.

Criminal Law

Indian's banking system has several outstanding achievements to its credit, the most striking of which is its reach. In fact, Indian banks are now spread out into the remotest areas of our country. Indian banking, which was operating in a highly comfortable and protected environment till the beginning of 1990s, has been pushed into the choppy waters of intense competition.

Banking Fraud - Prevention and Control

A sound banking system should possess three basic characteristics to protect depositor's interest and public faith. Theses are (i) a fraud free culture, (ii) a time tested Best Practice Code, and (iii) an in house immediate grievance remedial system. All these conditions are their missing or extremely weak in India. Section 5(b) of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 defines banking... "Banking is the accepting for the purpose of lending or investment, deposits of money from the purpose of lending or investment, deposits of money from the public, repayable on demand or otherwise and withdraw able by cheque, draft, order or otherwise." But if his money has fraudulently been drawn from the bank the latter is under strict obligation to pay the depositor. The bank therefore has to ensure at all times that the money of the depositors is not drawn fraudulently. Time has come when the security aspects of the banks have to be dealt with on priority basis.

The banking system in our country has been taking care of all segments of our socio-economic set up. The Article contains a discussion on the rise of banking frauds and various methods that can be used to avoid such frauds. A bank fraud is a deliberate act of omission or commission by any person carried out in the course of banking transactions or in the books of accounts, resulting in wrongful gain to any person for a temporary period or otherwise, with or without any monetary loss to the bank. The relevant provisions of Indian Penal Code, Criminal Procedure Code, Indian Contract Act, and Negotiable Instruments Act relating to banking frauds has been cited in the present Article.

EVOLUTION OF BANKING SYSTEM IN INDIA

Banking system occupies an important place in a nation's economy. A banking institution is indispensable in a modern society. It plays a pivotal role in economic development of a country and forms the core of the money market in an advanced country.

Banking industry in India has traversed a long way to assume its present stature. It has undergone a major structural transformation after the nationalization of 14 major commercial banks in 1969 and 6 more on 15 April 1980. The Indian banking system is unique and perhaps has no parallels in the banking history of any country in the world.

RESERVE BANK OF INDIA-ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL OBJECTIVE

The Reserve Bank of India has an important role to play in the maintenance of the exchange value of the rupee in view of the close interdependence of international trade and national economic growth and well being. This aspect is of the wider responsibly of the central bank for the maintenance of economic and financial stability. For this the bank is entrusted with the custody and the management of country's international reserves; it acts also as the agent of the government in respect of India's membership of the international monetary fund. With economic development the bank also performs a variety of developmental and promotional functions which in the past were registered being outside the normal purview of central banking. It also acts an important regulator.

BANK FRAUDS: CONCEPT AND DIMENSIONS

Banks are the engines that drive the operations in the financial sector, which is vital for the economy. With the nationalization of banks in 1969, they also have emerged as engines for social change. After Independence, the banks have passed through three stages. They have moved from the character based lending to ideology based lending to today competitiveness based lending in the context of India's economic liberalization policies and the process of linking with the global economy.

While the operations of the bank have become increasingly significant banking frauds in banks are also increasing and fraudsters are becoming more and more sophisticated and ingenious. In a bid to keep pace with the changing times, the banking sector has diversified it business manifold. And the old philosophy of class banking has been replaced by mass banking. The challenge in management of social responsibility with economic viability has increased.

DEFINITION OF FRAUD

Fraud is defined as "any behavior by which one person intends to gain a dishonest advantage over another". In other words , fraud is an act or omission which is intended to cause wrongful gain to one person and wrongful loss to the other, either by way of concealment of facts or otherwise.

Fraud is defined u/s 421 of the Indian Penal Code and u/s 17 of the Indian Contract Act. Thus essential elements of frauds are:

1. There must be a representation and assertion;

2. It must relate to a fact;

3. It must be with the knowledge that it is false or without belief in its truth; and

4. It must induce another to act upon the assertion in question or to do or not to do certain act.

BANK FRAUDS

Losses sustained by banks as a result of frauds exceed the losses due to robbery, dacoity, burglary and theft-all put together. Unauthorized credit facilities are extended for illegal gratification such as case credit allowed against pledge of goods, hypothecation of goods against bills or against book debts. Common modus operandi are, pledging of spurious goods, inletting the value of goods, hypothecating goods to more than one bank, fraudulent removal of goods with the knowledge and connivance of in negligence of bank staff, pledging of goods belonging to a third party. Goods hypothecated to a bank are found to contain obsolete stocks packed in between goods stocks and case of shortage in weight is not uncommon.

An analysis made of cases brings out broadly the under mentioned four major elements responsible for the commission of frauds in banks.

1. Active involvement of the staff-both supervisor and clerical either independent of external elements or in connivance with outsiders.

2. Failure on the part of the bank staff to follow meticulously laid down instructions and guidelines.

3. External elements perpetuating frauds on banks by forgeries or manipulations of cheques, drafts and other instruments.

4. There has been a growing collusion between business, top banks executives, civil servants and politicians in power to defraud the banks, by getting the rules bent, regulations flouted and banking norms thrown to the winds.

FRAUDS-PREVENTION AND DETECTION

A close study of any fraud in bank reveals many common basic features. There may have been negligence or dishonesty at some stage, on part of one or more of the bank employees. One of them may have colluded with the borrower. The bank official may have been putting up with the borrower's sharp practices for a personal gain. The proper care which was expected of the staff, as custodians of banks interest may not have been taken. The bank's rules and procedures laid down in the Manual instructions and the circulars may not have been observed or may have been deliberately ignored.

Bank frauds are the failure of the banker. It does not mean that the external frauds do not defraud banks. But if the banker is upright and knows his job, the task of defrauder will become extremely difficult, if not possible.

Detection of Frauds

Despite all care and vigilance there may still be some frauds, though their number, periodicity and intensity may be considerably reduced. The following procedure would be very helpful if taken into consideration:

1. All relevant data-papers, documents etc. Should be promptly collected. Original vouchers or other papers forming the basis of the investigation should be kept under lock and key.

2. All persons in the bank who may be knowing something about the time, place a modus operandi of the fraud should be examined and their statements should be recorded.

3. The probable order of events should thereafter be reconstructed by the officer, in his own mind.

4. It is advisable to keep the central office informed about the fraud and further developments in regard thereto.

Classification of Frauds and Action Required by Banks

The Reserve Bank of India had set-up a high level committee in 1992 which was headed by Mr. A... Ghosh, the then Dy. Governor Reserve Bank of India to inquire into various aspects relating to frauds malpractice in banks. The committee had noticed/observed three major causes for perpetration of fraud as given hereunder:

1. Laxity in observance of the laid down system and procedures by operational and supervising staff.

2. Over confidence reposed in the clients who indulged in breach of trust.

3. Unscrupulous clients by taking advantages of the laxity in observance of established, time tested safeguards also committed frauds.

In order to have uniformity in reporting cases of frauds, RBI considered the question of classification of bank frauds on the basis of the provisions of the IPC.
Given below are the Provisions and their Remedial measures that can be taken.

1. Cheating (Section 415, IPC)

Remedial Measures.

The preventive measures in respect of the cheating can be concentrated on cross-checking regarding identity, genuineness, verification of particulars, etc. in respect of various instruments as well as persons involved in encashment or dealing with the property of the bank.

2. Criminal misappropriation of property (Section 403 IPC).

Remedial Measure

Criminal misappropriation of property, presuppose the custody or control of funds or property, so subjected, with that of the person committing such frauds. Preventive measures, for this class of fraud should be taken at the level the custody or control of the funds or property of the bank generally vests. Such a measure should be sufficient, it is extended to these persons who are actually handling or having actual custody or control of the fund or movable properties of the bank.

3. Criminal breach of trust (Section 405, IPC)

Remedial Measure

Care should be taken from the initial step when a person comes to the bank. Care needs to be taken at the time of recruitment in bank as well.

4. Forgery (Section 463, IPC)

Remedial Measure

Both the prevention and detection of frauds through forgery are important for a bank. Forgery of signatures is the most frequent fraud in banking business. The bank should take special care when the instrument has been presented either bearer or order; in case a bank pays forged instrument he would be liable for the loss to the genuine costumer.

5. Falsification of accounts (Section 477A)

Remedial Measure

Proper diligence is required while filling of forms and accounts. The accounts should be rechecked on daily basis.

6. Theft (Section 378, IPC)

Remedial Measures

Encashment of stolen' cheque can be prevented if the bank clearly specify the age, sex and two visible identify action marks on the body of the person traveler's cheques on the back of the cheque leaf. This will help the paying bank to easily identify the cheque holder. Theft from lockers and safe deposit vaults are not easy to commit because the master-key remains with the banker and the individual key of the locker is handed over to the costumer with due acknowledgement.

7. Criminal conspiracy (Section 120 A, IPC)

In the case of State of Andhra Pradesh v. IBS Prasad Rao and Other, the accused, who were clerks in a cooperative Central Bank were all convicted of the offences of cheating under Section 420 read along with Section 120 A. all the four accused had conspired together to defraud the bank by making false demand drafts and receipt vouchers.

8. Offences relating to currency notes and banks notes (Section 489 A-489E, IPC)
These sections provide for the protection of currency-notes and bank notes from forgery. The offences under section are:

(a) Counterfeiting currency notes or banks.

(b) Selling, buying or using as genuine, forged or counterfeit currency notes or bank notes. Knowing the same to be forged or counterfeit.

(c) Possession of forged or counterfeit currency notes or bank-notes, knowing or counterfeit and intending to use the same as genuine.

(d) Making or passing instruments or materials for forging or counterfeiting currency notes or banks.

(e) Making or using documents resembling currency-notes or bank notes.

Most of the above provisions are Cognizable Offences under Section 2(c) of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.

FRAUD PRONE AREAS IN DIFFERENT ACCOUNTS

The following are the potential fraud prone areas in Banking Sector. In addition to those areas I have also given kinds of fraud that are common in these areas.

Savings Bank Accounts

The following are some of the examples being played in respect of savings bank accounts:

(a) Cheques bearing the forged signatures of depositors may be presented and paid.

(b) Specimen signatures of the depositors may be changed, particularly after the death of depositors,

(c) Dormant accounts may be operated by dishonest persons with or without collusion of bank employees, and

(d) Unauthorized withdrawals from customer's accounts by employee of the bank maintaining the savings ledger and later destruction of the recent vouchers by them.

Current Account Fraud

The following types are likely to be committed in case of current accounts.

(a) Opening of frauds in the names of limited companies or firms by unauthorized persons;

(b) Presentation and payment of cheques bearing forged signatures;

(c) Breach of trust by the employees of the companies or firms possessing cheque leaves duly signed by the authorized signatures;

(d) Fraudulent alteration of the amount of the cheques and getting it paid either at the counter or though another bank.

Frauds In Case Of Advances

Following types may be committed in respect of advances:

(a) Spurious gold ornaments may be pledged.

(b) Sub-standard goods may be pledged with the bank or their value may be shown at inflated figures.
(c) Same goods may be hypothecated in favour of different banks.

LEGAL REGIME TO CONTROL BANK FRAUDS

Frauds constitute white-collar crime, committed by unscrupulous persons deftly advantage of loopholes existing in systems/procedures. The ideal situation is one there is no fraud, but taking ground realities of the nation's environment and human nature's fragility, an institution should always like to keep the overreach of frauds at the minimum occurrence level.

Following are the relevant sections relating to Bank Frauds

Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860)

(a) Section 23 "Wrongful gain".-

"Wrongful gain" is gain by unlawful means of property to which the person gaining is not legally entitled.

(b) "Wrongful loss"

"Wrongful loss" is the loss by unlawful means of property to which the person losing it is legally entitled.
(c) Gaining wrongfully.

Losing wrongfully-A person is said to gain wrongfully when such person retains wrongfully, as well as when such person acquires wrongfully. A person is said to lose wrongfully when such person is wrongfully kept out of any property, as well as when such person is wrongfully deprived of property.

(d) Section 24. "Dishonestly"

Whoever does anything with the intention of causing wrongful gain to one person or wrongful loss to another person, is said to do that thing "dishonestly".

(e) Section 28. "Counterfeit"

A person is said to "counterfeit" who causes one thing to resemble another thing, intending by means of that resemblance to practice deception, or knowing it to be likely that deception will thereby be practiced.

BREACH OF TRUST

1. Section 408- Criminal breach of trust by clerk or servant.

2. Section 409- Criminal breach of trust by public servant, or by banker, merchant or agent.

3. Section 416- Cheating by personating

4. Section 419- Punishment for cheating by personation.

OFFENCES RELATING TO DOCMENTS

1) Section 463-Forgery

2) Section 464 -Making a false document

3) Section 465- Punishment for forgery.

4) Section 467- Forgery of valuable security, will, etc

5) Section 468- Forgery for purpose of cheating

6) Section 469- Forgery for purpose of harming reputation

7) Section 470- Forged document.

8) Section 471- Using as genuine a forged document

9) Section 477- Fraudulent cancellation, destruction, etc., of will, authority to adopt, or valuable security.

10) Section 477A- Falsification of accounts.

THE RESERVE BANK OF INDIA ACT, 1934

Issue of demand bills and notes Section 31.

Provides that only Bank and except provided by Central Government shall be authorized to draw, accept, make or issue any bill of exchange, hundi, promissory note or engagement for the payment of money payable to bearer on demand, or borrow, owe or take up any sum or sums of money on the bills, hundis or notes payable to bearer on demand of any such person

THE NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS ACT, 1881

Holder's right to duplicate of lost bill Section 45A.

1. The finder of lost bill or note acquires no title to it. The title remains with the true owner. He is entitled to recover from the true owner.

2. If the finder obtains payment on a lost bill or note in due course, the payee may be able to get a valid discharge for it. But the true owner can recover the money due on the instrument as damages from the finder.

Section 58

When an Instrument is obtained by unlawful means or for unlawful consideration no possessor or indorse who claims through the person who found or so obtained the instrument is entitled to receive the amount due thereon from such maker, acceptor or holder, or from any party prior to such holder, unless such possessor or indorse is, or some person through whom he claims was, a holder thereof in due course.

Section 85:

Cheque payable to order.

1. By this section, bankers are placed in privileged position. It provides that if an order cheque is indorsed by or on behalf of the payee, and the banker on whom it is drawn pays it in due course, the banker is discharged. He can debit his customer with the amount so paid, though the endorsement of the payee might turn out to be a forgery.

2. The claim protection under this section the banker has to prove that the payment was a payment in due course, in good faith and without negligence.

Section 87. Effect of material alteration

Under this section any alteration made without the consent of party would be void. Alteration would be valid only if is made with common intention of the party.

Section 138. Dishonour of cheque for insufficiency, etc., of funds in the account.

Where any cheque drawn by a person on an account maintained by him with a banker for payment of any amount of money to another person from out of that account for the discharge, in whole or in part, of any debt or other liability, is returned by the bank unpaid. either because of the amount of money standing to the credit of that account is insufficient to honour the cheque or that it exceeds the amount arranged to be paid from that account by an agreement made with that bank, such person shall be deemed to have committed an offence and shall, without prejudice.

Section 141(1) Offences by companies.

If the person committing an offence under Section 138 is a company, every person who, at the time the offence was committed, was in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for the conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.

SECURITY REGIME IN BANKING SYSTEM

Security implies sense of safety and of freedom from danger or anxiety. When a banker takes a collateral security, say in the form of gold or a title deed, against the money lent by him, he has a sense of safety and of freedom from anxiety about the possible non-payment of the loan by the borrower. These should be communicated to all strata of the organization through appropriate means. Before staff managers should analyze current practices. Security procedure should be stated explicitly and agreed upon by each user in the specific environment. Such practices ensure information security and enhance availability. Bank security is essentially a defense against unforced attacks by thieves, dacoits and burglars.

PHYSICAL SECURITY MEASURES-CONCEPT

A large part of banks security depends on social security measures. Physical security measures can be defined as those specific and special protective or defensive measures adopted to deter, detect, delay, defend and defeat or to perform any one or more of these functions against culpable acts, both covert and covert and acclamations natural events. The protective or defensive, measures adopted involve construction, installation and deployment of structures, equipment and persons respectively.

The following are few guidelines to check malpractices:

1. To rotate the cash work within the staff.

2. One person should not continue on the same seat for more than two months.

3. Daybook should not be written by the Cashier where an other person is available to the job

4. No cash withdrawal should be allowed within passbook in case of withdrawal by pay order.

5. The branch manager should ensure that all staff members have recorder their presence in the attendance registrar, before starting work.

Execution of Documents

1. A bank officer must adopt a strict professional approach in the execution of documents. The ink and the pen used for the execution must be maintained uniformly.

2. Bank documents should not be typed on a typewriter for execution. These should be invariably handwritten for execution.

3. The execution should always be done in the presence of the officer responsible for obtain them,
4. The borrowers should be asked to sign in full signatures in same style throughout the documents.

5. Unless there is a specific requirement in the document, it should not be got attested or witnessed as such attestation may change the character of the instruments and the documents may subject to ad volrem stamp duty.

6. The paper on which the bank documents are made should be pilfer proof. It should be unique and available to the banks only.

7. The printing of the bank documents should have highly artistic intricate and complex graphics.

8. The documents executed between Banker and Borrowers must be kept in safe custody,

CHANGES IN LEGISLATIONS AFTER ELECTRONIC TRANSACTIONS

1. Section 91 of IPC shall be amended to include electronic documents also.

2. Section 92 of Indian Evidence Act, 1872 shall be amended to include commuter based communications

3. Section 93 of Bankers Book Evidence Act, 1891 has been amended to give legal sanctity for books of account maintained in the electronic form by the banks.

4. Section 94 of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1939 shall be amended to facilitate electronic fund transfers between the financial institutions and the banks. A new clause (pp) has been inserted in Section 58(2).

RECENT TRENDS OF BANKING SYSTEM IN INDIA

In the banking and financial sectors, the introduction of electronic technology for transactions, settlement of accounts, book-keeping and all other related functions is now an imperative. Increasingly, whether we like it or not, all banking transactions are going to be electronic. The thrust is on commercially important centers, which account for 65 percent of banking business in terms of value. There are now a large number of fully computerized branches across the country.

A switchover from cash-based transactions to paper-based transactions is being accelerated. Magnetic Ink character recognition clearing of cheques is now operational in many cities, beside the four metro cities. In India, the design, management and regulation of electronically-based payments system are becoming the focus of policy deliberations. The imperatives of developing an effective, efficient and speedy payment and settlement systems are getting sharper with introduction of new instruments such as credit cards, telebanking, ATMs, retail Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) and Electronic Clearing Services (ECS). We are moving towards smart cards, credit and financial Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) for straight through processing.

Financial Fraud (Investigation, Prosecution, Recovery and Restoration of property) Bill, 2001

Further the Financial Fraud (Investigation, Prosecution, Recovery and Restoration of property) Bill, 2001 was introduced in Parliament to curb the menace of Bank Fraud. The Act was to prohibit, control, investigate financial frauds; recover and restore properties subject to such fraud; prosecute for causing financial fraud and matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

Under the said act the term Financial Fraud has been defined as under:

Section 512 - Financial Fraud

Financial frauds means and includes any of the following acts committed by a person or with his connivance, or by his agent, in his dealings with any bank or financial institution or any other entity holding public funds;

1. The suggestion, as a fact, of that which is not true, by one who does not believe it to be true;

2. The active concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the fact;

3. A promise made with out any intention of performing it;

4. Any other act fitted to deceive;

5. Any such act or omission as the law specially declares to be fraudulent.
Provided that whoever acquires, possesses or transfers any proceeds of financial fraud or enters into any transaction which is related to proceeds of fraud either directly or indirectly or conceals or aids in the concealment of the proceeds of financial fraud, commits financial fraud.

513(a) - Punishment for Financial Fraud

Whoever commits financial fraud shall be: (a) Punished with rigorous imprisonment for a term, which may extend to seven years and shall also be liable to fine.

(b)Whoever commits serious financial fraud shall be punished with rigorous imprisonment for a term which may extend to ten years but shall not be less than five years and shall also be liable for fine up to double the amount involved in such fraud.

Provided that in both (a) and (b) all funds, bank accounts and properties acquired using such funds subjected to the financial fraud as may reasonably be attributed by the investigating agency shall be recovered and restored to the rightful owner according to the procedure established by law.

CONCLUSION

The Indian Banking Industry has undergone tremendous growth since nationalization of 14 banks in the year 1969. There has an almost eight times increase in the bank branches from about 8000 during 1969 to mote than 60,000 belonging to 289 commercial banks, of which 66 banks are in private sector.

It was the result of two successive Committees on Computerization (Rangarajan Committee) that set the tone for computerization in India. While the first committee drew the blue print in 1983-84 for the mechanization and computerization in banking industry, the second committee set up in 1989 paved the way for integrated use of telecommunications and computers for applying technogical breakthroughs in banking sector.

However, with the spread of banking and banks, frauds have been on a constant increase. It could be a natural corollary to increase in the number of customers who are using banks these days. In the year 2000 alone we have lost Rs 673 crores in as many as 3,072 number of fraud cases. These are only reported figures. Though, this is 0.075% of Rs 8,96,696 crores of total deposits and 0.15% of Rs 4,44,125 crores of loans & advances, there are any numbers of cases that are not reported. There were nearly 65,800 bank branches of a total of 295 commercial banks in India as on June 30, 2001 reporting a total of nearly 3,072 bank fraud cases. This makes nearly 10.4 frauds per bank and roughly 0.47 frauds per branch.

An Expert Committee on Bank Frauds (Chairman: Dr.N.L.Mitra) submitted its Report to RBI in September 2001. The Committee examined and suggested both the preventive and curative aspects of bank frauds.

The important recommendations of the Committee include:

o A need for including financial fraud as a criminal offence;

o Amendments to the IPC by including a new chapter on financial fraud;

o Amendments to the Evidence Act to shift the burden of proof on the accused person;

o Special provision in the Cr. PC for properties involved in the Financial Fraud.

o Confiscating unlawful gains; and preventive measures including the development of Best Code Procedures by banks and financial institutions.

Thus it can be concluded that following measures should necessarily be adopted by the Ministry of Finance in order to reduce cases of Fraud.

o There must be a Special Court to try financial fraud cases of serious nature.

o The law should provide separate structural and recovery procedure. Every bank must have a domestic enquiry officer to enquire about the civil dimension of fraud.

o A fraud involving an amount of ten crore of rupees and above may be considered serious and be tried in the Special Court.

The Twenty-ninth Report of the Law Commission had dealt some categories of crimes one of which is "offences calculated to prevent and obstruct the economic development of the country and endanger its economic health." Offences relating to Banking Fraud will fall under this category. The most important feature of such offences is that ordinarily they do not involve an individual direct victim. They are punishable because they harm the whole society. It is clear that money involved in Bank belongs to public. They deposit there whole life' security in Banks and in case of Dacoity or Robbery in banks the public will be al lost. Thus it is important that sufficient efforts should be taken in this regard.

There exists a new kind of threat in cyber world. Writers are referring it as "Salami Attack" under this a special software is used for transferring the amount from the account of the individual. Hence the culprits of such crimes should be found quickly and should be given strict punishment. Moreover there is requirement of more number of IT professionals who will help in finding a solution against all these security threats.

Banking Fraud - Prevention and Control

Written By:
Apoorva Yadav and Juhi Malviya,
Final Year, National Law Institute University, Bhopal.

1. Extracts from the paper presented by Dr. Srinivasan, National Seminar on Economic Crimes, and Committee on Criminal Justice Reforms, International Institute of Revenue Research.
2. Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India, 2001, p. 73, Rath DP, RBI, 2001.
3. Banking System, Frauds and Legal Control, R.P Nainta, Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., 2005
4. H.L. Bedi, V.K Hardikar, Practical Banking (Advances) 1982, p.472
5. B.R Sharma, Bank Frauds Prevention and Detection (2001), p. 33
6. The H.P State Cooperative Bank Ltd., H.O No. 66/2001, dated 9.8.2001.
7. State of Andhra Pradesh v. IBS Prasad Rao and Other AIR 1970, SC 648;
8. V.C. Shukla v. State (1980), 25 CC 665.
9. S.N Maheshwari, Banking Law and Practice (1994), p. 635

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